10 simple ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

1. Use your vehicle less often. Do you really have to drive to the convenience store, to your friend’s house, or to the office? Try to reach your destination by walking, riding a bike, carpooling or using public transportation. A 10% reduction in vehicle use can reduce greenhouse gas emissions from 0.2 to 0.8 tonnes per year.
2. Drive more moderately. Accelerating gradually (instead of being heavy-footed) and reducing your driving speed saves fuel and reduces emissions.
3. Keep your vehicle in good operating condition. Proper tire inflation reduces fuel consumption and improves vehicle safety. Well-tuned engines might consume only 50% as much fuel and exhaust only 1/30 the emissions when compared to a similar, poorly tuned engine.
4. Lower your thermostat at home. You can save about 3% on heating costs for every degree you reduce your thermostat setting. After a short while, you probably won’t even notice the temperature difference.
5. Use your microwave oven more often. A typical microwave uses about one-half the energy of a stovetop element.
6. Reduce your computer’s energy consumption. Enable your monitor’s energy saving features when in use. Turn off your computer equipment at night and at other times when it doesn’t have to be left on. An LCD monitor consumes only 20-50% of the energy of a conventional CRT monitor.
7. Use less lighting. Take advantage of natural light when available instead of using electrical lighting. Turn off lights when a room or area is not occupied.
8. Hang your laundry. If time isn’t a concern, try hanging some or all of your laundry to dry instead of using the clothes dryer.
9. Be a smart shopper. When making a purchase, you probably have an opportunity to make an environmentally-wise selection. You can have an impact on energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions when buying everything from groceries (which may come in recycled packaging) to household appliances to automobiles. You’ll usually save money in the long run and see other benefits, too.
10. Be open to new ideas. We are continuously being presented with new solutions and opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. While the saying "old habits die hard" is often true, adopting new ways of going about our everyday activities - even by making small changes to the way we do things - can have a significant impact on the big picture.

Flora conservation of the Mongols: tradition and customs

By Erdenetuya Urtnast

The Mongols had imagined trees, grass and other plants as arms and legs of Etugen mother and avoided cutting plants. They believed in that if anyone cut hundred grasses then he or she would shorten his or her life by one year . Also they had been thinking that anyone would be maimed, provided he or she broke up branches and limbs of trees. Especially our people strictly forbade to cut trees during spring season when plant budded and they never cut young trees. Pulling of roots and stem of plants are prohibited as well. Tree worship custom had been being popular not only among the Mongols but also among other peoples of the world.
During prolonged period ancient people had noticed that a river and its’ surrounding area dry up as a bad result of chopping down single or prominent trees of the river bank. That is why they forbade to prune and chop down single, bushy or prominent trees. It was said that all trees in a forest share a root.
Among venerated trees, shamaness-tree veneration has long tradition. Particularly, shamaness-trees have regularly been worshipped in remotest areas where shamanism is predominant and less influenced by cultural transition. Mostly conifers, as well as bushy, spiral, bunched larches and cedars are shamaness-trees. Some of them grow next to a spring which has perpetual gushing of water. It is said that, shamaness-trees are very ferocious and tempestuous.
Another form of plant veneration is luxuriant (shanshi mod or spreading, bushy tree) tree veneration. A shanshi (luxuriant) tree has not to be a ferocious tree as a shamaness tree. However local people respect such trees, tie ribbons and silk scarves up their branches and offer best of food for the trees. Elderly people say that a shanshi tree grows from deep well which has clean water and cutting it would make water spirits and local deities angry, consequently drought and natural disaster would happen. This saying is on a scientific basis. The reason is that such trees are situated on the confluence of ground water sources and retain ground water. So they have stout limbs and luxuriant branches. If cut a shanshi tree or a single, bushy tree then ground water would evaporate and surrounding area would be deserted because of drought and less vegetation. Shanshi trees mostly were worshipped during the middle month of summer and a head of family or a man who has good reputation in the locality carried out the worship ceremony.

Climbing up shamaness-trees and shanshi (luxuriant) trees, breaking their branches, scrounging off offered foods to these trees, treading down their shadow or root, sleeping, whistling, speaking loudly next to these trees and many other improper actions are strictly prohibited. It is said that, an indiscriminate action and a careless mistake towards shamaness and luxuriant trees sometimes bring misfortunes and death.
People from elite stratum including high rank lamas and officials, nobilities and aristocrats had made their personal examples to the public for protecting and recovering the environment and nature. For instance, it was said that in Western Mongolia Lu gun (a duke) focused his activity on protecting of reedy (reed-like) larches which grow on Khan khokhii mountain range.

In Eastern Mongolia Eguzer Khutuktu Galsandash (a high rank lama) cultivated wild cherry in a place named Moiltyn am and there set up cherry grove. Also he cultivated roseroot, sophora, thyme, ribes diacanthum, sandalwood, elm, poplar, willow and other plant. The mentioned examples illustrate that elite people’s initiative have played considerable roles for environmental protection.

Taboos and prohibitions related with plants are aimed for sustainable use of natural yields and conservation of natural pristine condition. They were forbidden to pull out a plant with its’ root, to gather fruits and greens before ripening, to break plant blade, trunk, stalk and limbs. Preparing firewood people had avoided chopping down saplings or young trees, wet trees and beautiful trees. Mostly they gathered dry woods and fallen trees and used as firewood. If it was required to cut trees then they cut few trees from here and there.
Plant protection relevant issues were stated in laws and orders to some degree. In “Ikh zasag”, it was stated that “if dig hole after grown grass, put to death”. In “Khalkha jirum” was inserted a code to outlaw felling of wet trees and saplings in some certain areas. During Bogd khan’s Mongolia period Bogd khan ordered a decree to proscribe felling trees of certain mountains including Bogd khan, Gurvan Songino, Chingeltei, Belkh, Ondur ulaan and Bayanzurkh mountains. Also another decrees were ordered. For example one edict was emphasized to ban renting forest trees for foreigners. In 1911 Bogd khan mountain was titled Khairkhan and banned gathering flowers, berries and fruits and going on outing on Bogd khan and Chingeltei mountains. In 1915, it was forbedden to chop down trees without any permission along river banks of the Tuul and the Selbe. In “Codes of laws of Autonomous Monarchy of Mongolia” was incorporated an idea to forbid felling trees on sacred mountains.

Traditional ways for the water protection

By Erdenetuya Urtnast
The Mongols compare the water with the wish-granting jewel and count it as one of the three pure things: A growing juniper is a pure thing, burning incense is a pure thing and flowing water is a pure thing. They look up to the water and strive for maintaining its’ purity. Prohibition observances, religious rituals, laws and life conventions have played considerable roles for environmental protection.

Our ancestors have paid special attention to protect rivers, lakes and springs and basins. Because a water source provides soil humidity and fertility of the surrounding area and it gives chance to survive for animals and plants. The Mongols venerate holy waters and springs. Most of them are capable to cure and heal diseases, weariness and pains. Springs and mineral waters are found in beautiful places. Surrounding areas of springs and mineral waters can be considered places of ecological positive factors or sacred spaces.

They always take care on maintaining water purity, avoid dropping blood and milk to it and prohibit to urinating and pouring dirty water next to water sources. Besides those catching fish and minnows, killing insects and cutting trees and plants around water sources had been discouraged. These kinds of prohibitions were interpreted in connection with guardian spirits of the water. For instance, if anyone polluted the water and touched surrounding area then he or she would be harmed by the spirits of the water. The spirits of the water become angry and bring misfortunes, if rivers, lakes and springs are polluted, and this included bathing, washing and urinating in a water source, or throwing trash into the water. According to shamans’ view, guardian spirits (lords) of the water reside in springs and river beginnings. Therefore, the Mongols have offered sacrifices to the lords of the water, to make them happy.

It was prohibited to set fire next to rivers, lakes and springs, because of mutual contradiction of the fire and the water. After penetrating Buddhism in Mongolia, Buddhist prayer texts for water veneration ceremonies had been written and the lamas started to conduct the ceremony, but inner content of the ritual was not changed.
To worship springs and mineral water, a stone cairn decorated with willow and ribbons was erected near to the beginning of the water source. Mostly lamas, shamans, local intellectuals and some herders performed water worship ritual and they burned juniper and wormwood, prayed, offered dairy products and meat, sprinkled milk and vodka to stone cairn.

Since the four seasons of the year take turn in Mongolia, the growing season is over 4 months long, annual precipitation ranges from just 100 mm in the most arid regions to 500 mm in limited northern areas, and in much of the region is less than 350 mm. Predominant parts of the territory are steppe and desert areas lacking of ground and surface waters. So Mongolians have not only tried to protect water sources such as rivers, springs and lakes but also paid attention to dig wells and keep them clean.
Aside from protecting the environment and receiving natural bounty in proper ways, the Mongols had perceptively noticed laws of nature and lived in harmony with nature.

Human activities and actions impact on nature and environment, but to a greater extent humans and human culture and society exist under the influence of surrounding environment and it is inevitable to follow the law of nature. That is why, in certain days and months of the year they refrained from doing contrary actions against a rhythm and a frequency of natural phenomena. For example before the summer solstice it was not allowed to bath in a river and a lake. Because it was considered that if anyone disregarded this he or she become crippled or deformed.

Natural formation and its’ beauty would get lost and consequently human life and animal growth would be influenced negatively because of careless and harmful actions towards water sources. Therefore, in order to conserve the water, elderly people narrate various oral talks and stories about certain river, lake and spring and unlucky occurrences happened to someone by touching or polluting the water.

Brief overview about urbanization in Mongolia

By Erdenetuya Urtnast
For centuries or until the early 20th century the Mongols had farmed mobile animal husbandry and used livestock products rather than natural sources, such as using of cow dung as fuel. The territory has sparsely been populated because of low carrying capacity of Inner Asian ecosystem.
Thus it can be said that the urbanization process in Mongolia started only after 1921’s people’s revolution and in actual fact, around 50s and 60s of 20th century it began to take shape as a city because of collectivism, industrialization and “great socialist upbuilding” (socialismiin aguu ikh buteen bosgolt).

At the same time, thanks to cultural campaign (soyolyn dovtolgoo) or cultural raid the nomads started to become citizens of “modern city” by their behavior, hygiene and living style.
It doesn’t mean that I want neglect its’ previous history. The city was founded in 1639 somewhere around Shireet tsagaan nuur of Uvurkhangai aimag far away from its current location as a Buddhist monastic centre and, in 1778 the city settled for good at its current location or along the basin of the Tuul and the Selbe rivers, second of which has already evaporated.
Why collectivism and industrialization must be mentioned in connection with the urbanization? Because giving their livestock to negdels (collective farms) many herders migrated to Ulaanbaatar and became workers of new established industries. A main advantage of the period might be taking care of newcomers’ hygiene and civilized behavior.

Around 1970-1980s new micro districts of apartment buildings were built and since then many of ger settlement families moved into the new apartments. During the period the capital city was a medium sized, considerably clean, tidy and typical Russian style city, even there had been ger settlement areas in outskirt of the city. In the socialist period “to be a citizen of the capital was considered as matter of reputation” and Ulaanbaatar citizenship was restricted for rural residents.
Even though, after 1990’s rural-urban migration abruptly increased because of the variety of factors: social, economical, political, cultural and so on.

Ps: Photos were inserted from www.google.com

Environmental perception of the Mongols

By Erdenetuya Urtnast
Depending on natural condition and resources a certain way of subsistence takes shape and people bring into existence specific cultural and economical patterns. In this sense, in high forest and forest areas people have run hunting, whereas in steppe areas Mongolians have run mobile animal husbandry.

According to Mongolians’ understanding the “nature” is very inclusive concept which covers meaning “mighty force”, “the mother giving birth to all of animate beings”, “fertility, nourishment” and et cetera. The perception that human being relatively and entirely tied together surrounding environment is found in Mongolians’ worldview, religion and ecological consciousness. “According to the original ideas of Mongols, nature is an all-encompassing system which ideally remains in balance, a state of normality regulated by tngri” [1] . Also they they have personified nature and treated as if there is a communication between humans and nature as inter-human communication.

Since animal husbandry is dependent on nature and environment, Mongolians realize that nature and environment are the most vital origin and source of their life. They had not only received natural “generousity” and “bounty” by direct ways but also received via their livestock productivity, therefore they had comprehended very well about that if the vital source of life damaged then their life and fate would dramatically terminate. They had known very well about that if water resource polluted and dried up, then plants and vegetation, soil and pasture would be dessiccated, livestock would be lost, wild beasts and antelopes would shy away and consequently habitat would get lost. Because for them livestock products and natural sources are used for all of necessaries of life, such as food, clothing, lodging and transfortation.

For this reason on the one hand, in order to exist themselves, on the other hand they deeply realize that they are not able to recognize all secrets of the world and they never overcome mighty force of nature, Mongolians made up cultural pattern that adapted to ecological special feature of residing locality and created very sophisticated customs, laws, prohibitions, qtiquettes and religious rituals which are aimed to preserve natural and ecological pristine condition. Such pattern of culture is called as traditional culture. Mongolians never blamed to use natural sources for the sake of subsistence and survival, but had refrained to treat towards nature for gaining profits, breaking the law of nature and avoided to behave in careless and obdurate manners.

[1]Caroline Humphrey and David Sneath (edited). Culture and Environment in Inner Asia: Society and Culture. Volume.2. Cambridge: The White Horse Press, 1996, p.6

A problem of the capital “city”: Contamination of Land

By Erdenetuya Urtnast
Main causes of contamination of land in Ulaanbaatar are population growth caused by rural-urban migration, the expansion of ger-settlements, improper behavior and habit of people (for example, blowing the nose, spitting out saliva, dumping rubbish, excreting in public places and streets), the increasing use of plastics and chemicals.
There most of rural-urban migrants settle besides native settlers. Total squares of ger-settlements are 3 times larger than other areas. There is no green area in ger-districts and land devastation is higher than other areas. Due to simple or outside latrines, cesspits and rubbish dumps the chemical pollution of the ground is 2.5-8 times higher than other areas and bacterial contamination is 10 times higher than flat areas. It was estimated that there are more than 150 thousand latrines and the same number of sewage water pits in Ulaanbaatar.

A survey report conducted among low income and poor families of ger areas of Songinokhairkhan and Khan-Uul districts of Ulaanbaatar says: “Environmental hygiene is worse. Due to insufficient service to remove refuse, carelessness and laziness of the residents nearest ravines, holes and streets have heavily been dumped and polluted by refuse. Some of inhabitants pour sewage water, excrete and dump cinder around or outside of their wooden fence (khashaa).
Many households haven’t got sewage water pits in their khashaas. Sanitation and cleaning of latrines and sewage water holes are a headache for ger area residents. Some households try to sanitize by chlorine. During winter time they remove frozen excrements by shovel and litter into ravines”. A geoecological survey result conducted by Prof. Ch.Gonchigsumlaa in 2003-2006 shows that in ger areas of Sharkhad, Denjiin 1000, Khailaast and around electric power plants the contamination of land was 10-16 times higher than other areas of the city. Also in outskirts of city dump places and cemeteries have been expanding their squares with the population growth. These places severely threaten not only to ecosystem but also national security. For many of settlers it is very common to live in the neighborhood of cemeteries and dump points.

Ulaanbaatar: Air pollution

By Erdenetuya Urtnast
More than 1.5 billion people on the planet, including Ulaanbaatar residents are exposed to potentially health-damaging levels of air pollution. Concentrations of poisonous chemicals in air are several times larger than permissible standards show that today’s air pollution in Ulaanbaatar is at fatal level. Ulaanbaatar is one of the world's smoggiest capitals, so it has been nicknamed as “Utaanbaatar”. Ulaanbaatar means “red hero”. Utaanbaatar means “smoky hero” (the world utaa(n) means smoke, fume, exhaust & etc.). The geographical location of the city and excessive continental climate cause air pollution as well. It might be a key factor of air pollution.

A source says that nitrous dioxide concentration in air is 15 times, carbon oxide is 2-4 times and dust concentration is 7.8 times than permissible standard. According to official statistics of January 2008 exceeding percent of sulphur dioxide (SO2) was by 62 per cents higher than permissible standard, whereas nitrous dioxide (NO2) amount was by 97 percents higher than permissible level. [1]

Unfortunately we have come to accept smog and polluted air as “normal”. “Urban smog not only limits visibility; it can lead to health problems as uncomfortable as eye irritation and as deadly as lung cancer. The World Health Organization estimates that up to 700 000 premature deaths per year could be prevented if pollutants were brought down to safer levels“ [2]

Air pollution in Ulaanbaatar is caused primarily by electric power plants, low pressure boilers (heat only boilers) for heating, some industries, earth roads, ger-quarters which burn crude coal, car exhaust, and etc. To supplying of 80 per cents thermal energy and electricity of Ulaanbaatar the power plants burn 3.3 million tons coal each year and emit sulphur oxide (SO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases. Also there are more than 400 low pressure heat-only-boilers in Ulaanbaatar. They supply 7 per cent of heating in Ulaanbaatar.

Ger-quarter fumes are the main reason for air pollution. According to official statistics, by the end of 2007 total 1 031 000 residents of 234743 households were registered in Ulaanbaatar. But including inhabitants without Ulaanbaatar citizenship, more than 1.3 million people are living in Ulaanbaatar.

Approximately 60-70 per cent of the households in Ulaanbaatar are residing in ger-settlements. Households of ger-districts burn about 700 thousand tons of crude coal every year. More than 60 per cent of Ulaanbaatar territory belongs to ger-settlements. Ger quarter residents have no access to tap (fauset) water and the sewage system. Fires caused by unprotected electricity lines and sparks fly out of pipes are very common. There is no infrastructure except for earth roads, water tanks, power lines (domestic wiring), communications networks and telephone lines.

Most of low income families dwell in ger-quarters. For heating and cooking they burn not only fuelwood and crude coal but also plastic bottles, plastic bags, tires (tyres) and overlays, used lubricants (oil or lube) of vehicles and rubbishes as well. Traditionally the Mongols prohibit defiling of the hearth and fireplace. But because of lacking of money to buy fuelwood and coal, some poor people scavenge plastic bottles, scrapped shoes, from rubbish dumps and burn the stuffs. A resident of 7th khoroo of Songinokharikhan district says that “For not defiling the fireplace we drip a drop of vegetable oil or butter into the fire. It is a kind of ritual to purify the fireplace. It is much better to be hungry than being chilled”.

Another factor of the air pollution is the location of ger areas. In generally the city is surrounded by ger areas and majority of them are located in the west, north-west and north directions, from where blow wind.

Car exhaust is the main reason for the city's smog problem. By the end of 2006 total 140000 vehicles were registered in Mongolia and 56 per cent or 80000 vehicles were in Ulaanbaatar. 70 per cent of cars in Mongolia have been used more than 10 years. It means those old cars are main causes of air pollution because they emit harmful gas that contains 270 sorts of poisonous chemicals, including nitrogen dioxide, carbon oxide, sulphur oxide, lead and other heavy metals.

For rural-urban migrants it has always been difficult to find a job. That is why considerable number of them chooses to be a taxi driver by buying or renting a car. Generally second hand and old cars ejected from Korea, Japan, Hong kong and Germany market are sold in Mongolia’s market. Most of the Mongols can’t afford new cars.

[1] – Monthly bulletin of statistics: January 2008, (Ulaanbaatar, 2008),pp.83
[2] – Carty, 1999

Urbanization or Sub-Urbanization in Mongolia

A part of Ulaanbaatar (from a window of my place)
By Erdenetuya Urtnast
After 1990’s rural-urban migration abruptly increased because of the variety of factors: social, economical, political, cultural and so on. I am going to talk about it in more detail. That is why now I’ll try to describe present state of the urbanization process in Mongolia and its’ main peculiarities.
At first, I would like to mention that intensive process of urbanization and rural-urban migration are not only socio-economical phenomenon in Mongolia but also throughout of the World rural people have been moving to larger cities and the era can be said as urbanizing century.
In 1900 there were only 13 cities each had in excess of 1 million people, but in 2000 the number reached to 375. Expectations are for 564 million cities in 2015. “The amount of urban growth differs from continent to continent and from region to region, but nearly all countries have two things in common: The proportion of their people living in cities is rising, and the cities themselves are large and growing. In consequence, most of the world’s people will soon be city dwellers. Urban population is increasing much more rapidly in developing countries than in the more developed economies” [1] .
Briefly, Ulaanbaatar can be described as a medium-sized and typical primate city of a developing country surrounded by shantytowns. A resident of a ger-settlement of Ulaanbaatar would get upset if anyone explained what is the shantytown or a ghetto.
Interestingly, there is no contrasting social hierarchy among settlement areas of Ulaanbaatar. That is why in ger-settlement areas comfortable detached houses of wealthy families are found. It might be a distinction of the capital city.
By the way what does the primate city mean? Primate city patterns are very popular for developing countries of Asia and Africa. By size, most of primate cities are several times larger than second cities of the certain country. Darkhan, the second city of Mongolia has 74 thousand populations. It means Ulaanbaatar is 14 times bigger than Darkhan by its size of population. “For a characteristic of a primate city hierarchy is one very large city, few or no intermediate-sized cities, and many subordinate smaller settlements. The capital cities of many developing countries display that the overwhelming primacy” [2] . In Mongolia’s case, the capital city is not very large one, it contains over 46 per cent of the total population.
“There are some common features of developing world cities. All, for example have endured massive in-migrations from rural areas, and most have had even faster rates of natural increase than of immigration. As a result, most are ringed by vast squatter settlements high in density and low in public facilities and services. All apparently have populations greater than their formal functions and employment bases can support. In all, large numbers support themselves in the informal sector. They have modern centers of commerce”.
The capital city of Mongolia as well shares common features of other cities of developing world: en masse rural-urban migration, ringed by ger-settlements high in density and low in social services and unsanitary environmental conditions and etc. Large numbers support themselves in the informal sector – black market traders, taxi drivers, cooks of small cafes, builders and etc.
Another peculiarity of primate cities of developing world is most of them are ringed by shantytowns. “Between one-third and two-thirds of the population of most developing world cities is crowded in shantytowns and squatter settlements built by the inhabitants. They usually have little or no access to publicly provided services such as water supply, sewerage and drainage, paved roads, and garbage removal… More usually, however, overcrowding transforms these settlements into vast zones of disease and squalor subject to constant danger from landslides, fire, and flooding. The informality and illegality of the squatter housing solution means that those who improvise and build their own shelters lack registration and recognized ownership of their domiciles or the land on which they stand” [3] .
About 60-70 percent of Ulaanbaatar population resides in ger-settlements which are can be described as typical shantytown – they have little access to publicly provided services. Many residents of ger-settlements “erect their dwellings on steep mountain slopes where the danger of landslides is high. Those families settling down in the flood plains of rivers and streams risk being washed away in the case of heavy rains which can result in destructive floods…

The urban administration faces great problems in providing sufficient infrastructural services, especially enough clean water and electricity. The disposal of waste and excrement is unsolved. The bad hygienic conditions bear a high risk for the health of the inhabitants. As building ground becoming rare near the town centre, the migrants are even settling close to the major cemetery of Ulaanbaatar” [4]...

[1]- Jerome.D, Fellman, Arthur Getis and Judith Getis, Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities, (McGraw Hill, 2003), pp.396
[2]- ibid., pp.410
[3]- ibid., pp.436
[4]- Janzen,J. and Bazargur,D, “The Transformation Process in Mobile Livestock Keeping and Changing Patterns of Mobility in Mongolia. –With Special Attention to Western Mongolia and Ulaanbaatar,” in Ishikawa, Y and Montanari,A ed., The New Geography of Human Mobility – Inequality Trends? IGU, vol.4, , (Home of Geography, Societa Geografica Italiana. Roma, 2003), pp.207